The Indus Valley Civilization, known as one of the earliest urban cultures of the world, is a significant part of Indian history and a key topic for APPSC Group 1 & 2 exam aspirants. In this article titled “Indus Valley Civilization Notes for APPSC Group 1 & 2 Exams,” we aim to provide a simple and easy-to-understand overview of this ancient civilization, focusing on its major highlights and contributions.
For students preparing for the APPSC exams, it’s essential to grasp the basic elements of the Indus Valley Civilization. This includes understanding its discovery, the layout of its cities, the daily life of its people, their trade practices, and the mysterious script that has remained undeciphered till today. These notes will cover these aspects in a straightforward manner, making it easier for exam preparation.
Phases of the Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), known for its pioneering urban planning and rich cultural heritage, went through several distinct phases in its history.
- Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BCE)- REGIONALISATION ERA:
Marking the genesis of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Early Harappan Phase laid the foundation for one of the world’s oldest urban cultures. This era witnessed the formation of small settlements that gradually evolved into sophisticated urban centers. Notable features of this period include the development of regional trade networks and the cultivation of various crops, showcasing the early economic and agricultural practices of the civilization. - Mature Harappan Phase (2600 to 1900 BCE)- INTEGRATION ERA:
Often referred to as the zenith of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Mature Harappan Phase is characterized by the establishment of iconic cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal. This period is renowned for its advanced urban planning, architectural innovations, and a well-organized social structure. The cities from this era exhibit remarkable uniformity in construction, indicative of a strong central administration or a shared cultural ethos. - Late Harappan Phase (1900 to 1300 BCE)- LOCALISATION ERA:
The Late Harappan Phase signifies the gradual decline of this once-thriving civilization. Factors contributing to this decline may include environmental changes, a reduction in trade, and possible socio-political upheavals. This phase saw the desertion of cities and a shift towards rural and small-scale village lifestyles. Despite the decline, the influence of the Indus Valley Civilization continued to be felt in the region, laying the groundwork for future cultural developments.
Understanding the phases of the Indus Valley Civilization is crucial for APPSC aspirants, as it provides a glimpse into the rise and fall of one of the ancient world’s most advanced societies.
Town Planning and Structures of the Indus Valley Civilization
For APPSC Group 1 & 2 exam aspirants, understanding the town planning and architectural sophistication of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) is crucial. This section elaborates on the unique aspects of urban design that made IVC one of the most advanced civilizations of its time.
Distinct Urban Divisions:
The Harappan cities were characterized by a clear division into two parts:
- CITADEL (raised part) – situated to west, occupied a smaller area, rulers of city lived here.
- LOWER PART– common citizens lived, situated to east, was larger.
Positioned on the western side, the Citadel was an elevated area that served as the administrative or ruling center. This section, which occupied a smaller portion of the city, was likely home to the rulers and elite members of society. It was known for its strategic elevation, providing a commanding view of the surroundings.
Home to the common citizens, the Lower City was situated to the east and comprised a larger area. This part of the city was where the majority of the population resided, engaged in various trades and daily activities.
Grid Pattern Layout:
Reflecting advanced urban planning, the city streets were laid out in a grid pattern. Roads ran from north to south and were intersected at right angles, creating a well-organized and navigable city layout. This grid system facilitated effective management and movement within the city.
Standardized Construction Materials:
The Harappans demonstrated remarkable uniformity in their construction materials, especially bricks. They used burnt bricks with a consistent ratio of 1:2:4 (Thickness: Width: Length). The average size of bricks used for houses was 7 x 14 x 28 cm³, while larger bricks measuring 10 x 20 x 40 cm³ were used for city walls. This standardization indicates a highly organized approach to construction.
Innovative Architectural Features:
An interesting feature of Harappan architecture was that no windows faced the streets, perhaps for privacy or climatic reasons. Their drainage system was exceptionally advanced, with covered drains running alongside the streets. Each house had its own drainage connected to these street drains. The system included smaller drains feeding into larger ones and was designed with a gentle slope to ensure smooth water flow. Regularly spaced inspection holes along the drains facilitated maintenance and cleaning.
These features not only showcase the civilization’s technical know-how but also its emphasis on organization, cleanliness, and urban functionality. Understanding these aspects provides valuable insights into the advanced urban life of one of the world’s earliest civilizations.
Society of the Indus Valley Civilization
The societal structure of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) offers a fascinating glimpse into the life and skills of one of the world’s earliest urban societies.
Artistry in Bead Making:
The Harappans excelled in the intricate art of bead making. Their craftsmanship in creating beads from various materials like carnelian, agate, and other semi-precious stones was exceptional. These beads were not only used for ornaments but also played a role in trade and cultural exchange.
Metallurgy and Use of Metals:
Harappan society demonstrated advanced knowledge in metallurgy. They skillfully used metals like copper, bronze, silver, and gold. Notably, iron was not known to them during this period. Their expertise in producing alloys shows a high level of technological advancement in metalworking.
Textiles:
Textiles played a significant role in Harappan society. Evidence suggests that the Harappans wore garments made from cotton and wool, pointing to their skills in textile production and weaving. The use of cotton, in particular, highlights their pioneering role in the development of cotton textiles.
Unique Writing System:
The Harappan script is one of the most intriguing aspects of their civilization. It was primarily pictographic and logosyllabic, meaning each symbol typically represented a word. Additionally, their writing followed a ‘boustrophedon’ style, where the text was written alternately right-to-left and left-to-right in successive lines. This distinct writing style adds to the mystery of the Harappan language, which remains undeciphered to this day.
Economy of the Indus Valley Civilization
Let us explore the economic practices of the Harappans, their trade relations, and the artifacts that provide insights into their commercial systems.
Trade Relations with Mesopotamia:
The IVC, known as ‘Melluha’ by the Mesopotamians, engaged in significant trade with Mesopotamia. This is evidenced by the discovery of Mesopotamian cylinder seals in Mohenjo-Daro and the presence of Harappan artifacts in Mesopotamia. These interregional trade interactions highlight the Harappans’ extensive trade network.
Harappan Seals:
A key component of Harappan trade was their distinctive seals. These seals, typically square or oblong plaques, were made of steatite stone. They were used to mark goods and possibly to signify ownership or origin, playing a crucial role in trade and commerce.
Barter System:
In the absence of metallic money, the Harappan economy relied heavily on the barter system. Goods and services were exchanged without the use of currency, indicating a well-organized system of trade and commerce.
Bead Making and Dockyards:
The Harappans were skilled bead makers, with factories discovered at Chanhudaro and Lothal, indicating a thriving bead-making industry. Lothal is particularly notable for its excavated dockyard, suggesting that it was an important maritime trade center. Other sea ports like Rangpur, Somnath, and Balakot also underline the maritime prowess of the Harappans.
Weight System:
The Harappans used a sophisticated weight system, following a binary system in lower denominations (1, 2, 8, 16, 32, 64) and decimal multiples of 160 (160, 320, 640, etc.) for higher denominations. These weights, made of chert, limestone, and steatite, were typically cubical, reflecting the civilization’s advanced understanding of measurement and standardization.
The economic framework of the Indus Valley Civilization was marked by its extensive trade networks, innovative use of seals, reliance on the barter system, sophisticated bead-making, and maritime activities. For APPSC aspirants, understanding these aspects of the Harappan economy provides a comprehensive view of the civilization’s commercial and trade practices, essential for a thorough grasp of ancient Indian history.
Religion in the Indus Valley Civilization
The religious practices of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) offer intriguing insights into the cultural and spiritual life of one of the earliest urban societies.
Secular Society with Sacred Elements:
The IVC is often considered a secular society, as no structures that could be definitively identified as temples have been found. However, the presence of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro suggests that certain spots were considered sacred. This large, well-built pool might have been used for ritual bathing, indicating a form of water worship or purification rituals.
Worship of Deities and Nature:
Idolatry was a prevalent practice in the Harappan society. Key figures of worship included the mother goddess, symbolizing fertility, and a male deity resembling Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Shiva), often linked with yogic practices. The reverence for lingam (phallus) and yoni (female sex organs), along with pipal trees and animals like the humped bull and the unicorn, indicates a diverse range of religious beliefs, including nature and animal worship.
Fire Altars and Burial Practices:
Evidence of fire altars found in Kalibangan and Lothal suggests the practice of fire worship. The direction in which dead bodies were placed, predominantly in the north-south axis, hints at specific burial rituals and beliefs about the afterlife.
Phallic and Yonic Symbols:
The discovery of numerous phallic and yonic symbols made of stone reinforces the idea of fertility worship. These symbols are indicative of the Harappans’ reverence for the creative forces of nature.
Representation of Male Deity:
A significant seal from the IVC depicts a male deity with three horned heads in a yogic posture, surrounded by animals like an elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, and buffalo, with deer at his feet. This figure, identified as Pashupati Mahadeva, indicates a complex pantheon of deities.
Agriculture in the Indus Valley Civilization
The agricultural practices of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) played a crucial role in sustaining one of the world’s earliest urban societies.
Pioneers in Cotton Production:
The IVC was the earliest known civilization to produce cotton, referred to as ‘Sindon’ by the Greeks. This innovation in cotton cultivation marks a significant advancement in textile history and highlights the Harappans’ ingenuity.
Diverse Crop Cultivation:
Harappan agriculture was diverse and efficient. They grew wheat, particularly in the region of Mehrgarh, and evidence of rice cultivation has been found in Lothal. Other crops included barley, rai (mustard), peas, sesame, lentil, and chickpea. Millets were also cultivated, especially in areas like Gujarat. However, rice usage was relatively rare compared to other grains.
Ploughing and Tools:
Evidence suggests the Harappans used wooden ploughs for agriculture, as indicated by ploughed fields found in Kalibangan. Terracotta models of ploughs discovered at Banwali and Bahawalpur provide further evidence of their ploughing techniques.
Riverine and Marine Resources:
The Harappans exploited riverine and marine resources, indicating their understanding of diverse food sources. This aspect underlines their adaptability and resourcefulness in food production.
Location of Harappan Villages:
Most Harappan villages were strategically located near floodplains, which allowed for efficient cultivation and sufficient production of food grains. This choice of location reflects their understanding of fertile lands and water management.
Agricultural Practices and Irrigation:
While direct evidence of their agricultural practices is limited, findings of grains indicate the prevalence of agriculture. Seals and terracotta sculptures suggest that bulls, and possibly oxen, were used for ploughing. The majority of Harappan sites were in semi-arid lands, pointing towards the likelihood of irrigation practices. Traces of canals at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, although not found in Punjab or Sindh, suggest some level of irrigation technology.
Animal Husbandry:
Apart from agriculture, animal rearing was also prevalent. However, the Harappan culture was not centered around horses, as evident from the limited evidence of horses at sites like Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) around 1800 BCE remains one of the most intriguing chapters in ancient history.
Debated Theories of Decline:
The exact reasons for the decline of the IVC are still a subject of debate among scholars. The complexity of this issue adds a fascinating dimension to the study of ancient civilizations.
- Aryan Invasion Theory:
- One of the earlier theories suggested that the IVC declined due to an invasion by Indo-European tribes, commonly referred to as Aryans. This theory posited a violent end to the civilization, brought about by external conquest.
- However, this theory has been largely disputed in recent years. Evidence in later cultures shows elements of the IVC, suggesting that the civilization did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion.
- Natural Factors:
- A more widely accepted view among contemporary scholars is that natural factors played a significant role in the decline of the IVC.
- Geological and climatic changes are considered primary natural causes. Tectonic disturbances leading to earthquakes might have altered or dried up river courses, drastically affecting the civilization that heavily depended on riverine resources.
- Shifts in Rainfall Patterns and River Courses:
- Changes in rainfall patterns, potentially leading to extended periods of drought, are another plausible explanation. Such climatic shifts would have severely impacted agriculture, the backbone of the Harappan economy.
- Dramatic shifts in river courses could have led to flooding in crucial food-producing areas, further destabilizing the civilization.
- Gradual Collapse Theory:
- The combination of these natural causes likely contributed to a slow but inevitable collapse of the IVC. This theory supports the idea of a gradual decline rather than an abrupt end, marked by a reduction in urbanization and a shift towards rural lifestyles.
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, whether due to natural factors, external invasion, or a combination of both, marks an important study area for APPSC aspirants. Understanding these theories provides valuable insights into the challenges faced by ancient civilizations and their responses to environmental and societal changes.
Important Indus Valley Civilization Sites
Discover the archaeological wonders of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) through its significant sites. Each site offers unique insights into the lifestyle, culture, and technological advancements of one of the world’s earliest urban societies.
1. Harappa
- Excavated by: Daya Ram Sahni in 1921
- Location: Punjab, Pakistan
- Important Findings: Urban planning evidence, granaries, a sophisticated drainage system, and numerous artifacts indicating a bustling trade center.
2. Mohenjo-Daro
- Excavated by: R.D. Banerji in 1922
- Location: Sindh, Pakistan
- Important Findings: The Great Bath, granaries, advanced drainage systems, and the “Dancing Girl” bronze statue, highlighting sophisticated urban living.
3. Kalibangan
- Excavated by: A. Ghosh in 1953
- Location: Rajasthan, India
- Important Findings: Fire altars, ploughed agricultural fields, indicating early farming practices, and a fortified city layout.
4. Lothal
- Excavated by: S.R. Rao in 1957
- Location: Gujarat, India
- Important Findings: A dockyard suggesting maritime trade, warehouses, and evidence of bead making, pointing towards a rich trading and manufacturing hub.
5. Chanhudaru
- Excavated by: N.G. Majumdar in 1931
- Location: Sindh, Pakistan
- Important Findings: Bead-making factories, indicating a thriving craft industry, and various toys suggesting a rich cultural life.
6. Dholavira
- Excavated by: J.P. Joshi in 1967-68
- Location: Gujarat, India
- Important Findings: Water conservation systems and reservoirs, unique signboards with Indus script, and multi-layered defensive mechanisms.
7. Banawali
- Excavated by: R.S. Bisht in 1973
- Location: Haryana, India
- Important Findings: Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan cultural phases, toys, and a well-planned city layout.
8. Surkotada
- Excavated by: J.P. Joshi in 1964
- Location: Gujarat, India
- Important Findings: The only site where evidence of horse remains has been found, suggesting contacts or trade with regions where horses were common.
9. Sutkagendor
- Excavated by: Sir Aurel Stein in 1927
- Location: Balochistan, Pakistan
- Important Findings: Indicated to be a trade outpost between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, showcasing long-distance trade networks.
Each of these sites contributes to our understanding of the Indus Valley Civilization, offering a glimpse into the lives of its people, their technological prowess, and their interactions with the environment and each other.